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Question: Discuss About The Through Practical Applications Of Wireless? Answer: Introducation As stated above, wireless LAN has become the most popular wireless technology in the world, this outcome has been facilitated by its conveniences and benefits which have enhanced all applications of networking/connectivity [1]. Furthermore, its associated protocol (IEEE 802.11) has enabled secure access to networking resources while boosting collaboration with other associated technologies. In fact, through wireless LAN different users having different devices as well as technologies can connect to the same networks. This outcome is very different as compared to past systems that used wired networks that required the users to connect to the same wiring system in order to access similar resources. As the technology grows, the users have also had to adapt to the associated problems more so, security where advanced security protocols have been developed to filter networks frames/data. These security protocols have also grown with the technology where a growth, from WEP, has led to the d evelopment of WPA and WPA2 [2]. Nevertheless, one of the most significant factor in the application of WLAN has been the internet, which through its services and resources has influenced end-users to seek effective means to access it. Therefore, wireless LAN can be thought of as a conventional technology, whose growth and applications has been influenced by the subsequent growth of the internet. Furthermore, the increased demand of wireless LAN has seen multiple technologies and protocols introduced in order to match the sharing functionalities of computer resources through wired networks [3]. The sharing of computer resources is further exemplified by the connection spectrum used which uses an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing technique to increase the overall network access. In the end, the user has enhanced flexibility and extended network coverage, important factors in the enhancement of communication outcomes. Literature Review WLANs IEEE 802.11 standard was created back in 1987 as a standardization of wireless communication where it was used as a low power communication protocol. In itself, the protocol did not require any form of licencing and could be used for various functionalities. However, at the initial stages, its application was derailed by the nature of the used as they required expensive and bulky equipment. This derailment would come to pass in the 1990s when the growth of the telecommunication industry saw the development of proprietary protocols and solutions that had different versions of the mother protocol (IEEE 802.11) [4]. Throughout the years two main WLAN standards have been developed; IEEE 802.11 and Hiper LAN. Now, the IEEE 802.11 is better of the two having mature functionalities as result of its extensive application throughout the industry. Furthermore, its applications, components and cards are produced by many manufacturers who hold different objectives while facilitating the enhancement of wireless networks. In terms of operation, it uses the 2.4 GHz range which provides an all-inclusive connectivity of mobile/portable stations across a given local area network [5]. This outcome has enhanced its application where its growth is clearly outlined by the evolution of the transfer rates, as exhibited in the diagram below. IEEE standard evolution Standard Frequency used Transfer rates Operation range Legacy 2.4 GHz 1 Mbps Unknown 802.11a 5 GHz 25 Mbps 30 m 802.11b 2.4 GHz 6.5 Mbps 30 m 802.11g 2.4 GHz 25 Mbps 30 m 802.11n 2.4 GHz 200 Mbps 50 m On the other hand, HIPERLAN (an acronym for High-performance radio local area network) represents a standard developed by the European institute of telecommunication (ETSI) in order to enhance the overall performance of wireless networks. The technology or standard is used with portable devices that require broadband connections such as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) and ATM (Asynchronous transfer mode). However, its application is still limited as it's still in the prototyping stages [6]. Components of WLAN Regardless of the protocol used, WLAN uses the same components that are similar to the traditional systems used to facilitate its operations. These components are access points, interface cards (adapters), repeaters and antennas. Now, these elements are used to collaborate the wireless infrastructure through their respective operations. Moreover, these components are supplemented by other functionalities particularly those of security that ensure the right people access the network resources. These additional functionalities are authentication, authorization and accounting [7]. In the modern structure, RADIUS servers (remote address dial-in user service) are used to perform these functionalities while being collaborated with network management servers (NMS). Furthermore, the respective devices/gadgets used to access the networks are made using intelligent technologies that help to protect the users. IEEE 802.11 main components Stations also referred to as base stations, these component houses the devices that support the networks functionalities through their computing capabilities. In all, the wireless networks are designed to transfer data packets from one station to another, a functionality that requires the base station. These stations are controlled by the access points and can either be a portable or a non-portable devices e.g. a laptop. Access points an important component that offers the bridging service to wireless networks, where communication frames are converted from wired systems to wireless connections. Therefore, access points enable WLAN to be connected to the rest of the world more so, to other wired connections [8]. Medium (wireless) the radio spectrum is used as the medium, where electromagnetic waves are used to connect the various service stations. However, this medium is supported by several physical layers. At the start, two physical layers were used; infrared and radio frequency but, RF has grown to become the most popular option. Distributed systems having established the access points, their communication over a large area requires a tracking facility to highlight the movement of portable stations. Now, the logical element used to meet this functionality is the distributed system which is used to forward network frames to their respective destinations. Because of their functionalities, distributed systems are known as backbone networks e.g. Ethernet [4]. WLAN Architecture The IEEE 802.11 standards allow wireless networks to be configured using two main methods: The infrastructure method/mode. The Adhoc mode. In the first mode (infrastructure), a common central access point is used to coordinate operations where different service stations are served in a distributed way. In comparison to this structure, the Adhoc mode does not have a central access point and therefore will not have a common network coordinator [9]. This outcome decreases accountability which facilitates network intrusions among many other inconveniences. Nevertheless, both models use similar access method i.e. the distributed coordination function (DCF). However, the infrastructure mode does also facilitate its operations using another additional access method, the point coordination function (PCF). DCF (common method): an access method that uses carrier sensing to coordinate the transfer of data packets. In most wireless networks, the CSMA/CA (Carrier sense multiple access/ collision avoidance) technique is used to coordinate communication where packet collisions are avoided in the telecommunication channels. This outcome is accomplished using an intelligent functionality that analyses the content of service stations and channels before communication is conducted [10]. PCF: on the other hand, PCF, unlike DCF, will use time division technique (TDM) to coordinate operations across network stations. Now, PCF will use a point coordinator who will act as a master to the stations (slaves). Through this structure, the transmission period is divided into different sections with each station being allocated a time frame. The station on its behalf will then transmit information when given a go ahead by the point coordinator through a polling frame element. Therefore, the coordinator will decide the stations that are allowed to transmit thus eliminating delays due to collisions [4]. Protocol architecture From the diagram above its easy to identify the similarity between the IEEE model with the OSI model where the physical layer (lowest layer) directly corresponds with that of the OSI model. Now, the physical layer, in this case, is used to perform several functionalities including the encoding and decoding of communication signals. Moreover, the layer will facilitate the removal and generation of the preamble in readiness for network synchronization. Furthermore, the same layer will enable the communicating devices to transmit and receive data bits based on an electrical medium. Above the physical layer is the data link layer which encapsulates the logical link layer (LLC) and the medium access control layer (MAC). This layer through its subsidiary layers provides several functionalities including the assembling and error detection of data frames. The same layer will monitor network access through the communication mediums in order to avoid unauthorised access. Moreover, the data link layer will provide an elaborate interface with the other layers in order to conduct error and flow control functionalities [11]. WLAN categories Four main categories are used in this scenario; infrared LAN (IR), direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and narrow band microwave LAN (NBML). IR operating within the 1 and 2 Mbps range, IR LANs are associated with inexpensive structures that operate within the same frequency range as those of fibre optic links. IR also only detects the amplitude of signals which minimises interferences across communication channels. Moreover, the same networks are not limited in terms of bandwidth which facilitates higher transmission speeds as compared to other LAN systems. In all, IR will operate using the light spectrum which is attributed to better transmission rates while having minimal resource requirements. In addition to this, IR LANs can operate using two transmission methods; an aimed mode which has the best transmission rates based on its bandwidth and throughput requirement and, two the omnidirectional mode, where signals are bounced off objects [12]. DSSS operating within the 2.4 GHz range, DSSS offers sevens communication channels that are characterised with optimal data rates of up to 2 Mbps. This category of LAN is used in the ISM field (industrial, scientific and medical) which in itself does not require any form of licencing. Nevertheless, DSSS will use multiple transmission bits to represent the original signal. These multiple bits are known as chipping codes and are used to spread the communication signal across a wider area using frequency bands that match the bits used. Therefore, while using DSSS, a chipping code having a 10 bits structure will spread the overall signal across a band that is 10 times bigger than the 1-bit signal originally used. FHSS another LAN category that uses the 2.4GHz range with a 2 Mbps data rate. The FHSS is also used within the ISM band and will also not require any form of licencing. However, unlike the DSSS, FHSS will broadcast signals over a series of radio frequencies which will enable the signals to hop from one frequency range to another using known intervals. Therefore, communicating devices (transmitter and receiver) will have to synchronise their hops in order to match their frequency ranges [13]. NBML operating at high frequencies, narrow band LANs will use microwave frequencies to transmit signals. In terms of application, they are the least used category and unlike the rest will not use spread spectrums. Their operations are conducted using single frequency modulation where a 5.8 GHz band is used. Now, the benefit of NBML is the high throughput that is achieved due to the absence of the spread spectrum overhead [5]. WLAN Applications WLAN application traverses all the fields and industries of business, including personal communication where increased demand for internet connectivity has led to the growth of the IEEE 802.11 standard. In all, four applications are exhibited by WLAN: Network extension Cross-building interconnection Nomadic access Ad hoc connectivity Network extension: local area networks in the past were associated with cabled infrastructure that used Ethernet connections to serve end users. These wired networks were expensive to set up and maintain, however, with WLAN, an effective and beneficial alternative is provided based on the existing wired infrastructure. Essentially, WLAN will be used to extend the reach of wired LAN thus facilitate a wider coverage, an outcome that will also increase the number of people being served. Therefore, as stated in the previous section, the Ethernet connection (distributed system) will form the backbone structure while the WLAN will extend the services [14]. Cross-building connection: while LAN may operate within closed quotas, some organizations will have multiple buildings each having their own respective LANs. Now, using wired connections, the building can be connected to form an extensive LAN connection. However, this method is expensive and will require many resources more so the cabling. WLAN more so, point to point connections (link) will facilitate the exchange of information across the different LANs. In this case, the WLAN will link network devices such as routers and bridges. Nomadic access: this application is a direct response to the desire of mobility and flexibility where LAN hubs are accessed by portable devices equipped with the necessary access infrastructure such as antennas. An example of this application is a student accessing an assignment stored in a campus server while using the Wi-Fi connection. As an application, nomadic access extends the network environment by allowing multiple users to operate within a wide area. Ad hoc: the final application of WLAN corresponds to one of the access mode discussed before, where operations are not governed by a central coordinator. In essence, ad hoc connections are peer to peer networks that are set up by users for specific and immediate needs. Therefore, ad hoc connections are usually temporary in nature having minimal control feature but with the capabilities of wireless connections. Through this applications, the participants act as both the servers and clients accessing the information they require [15]. New Findings (Recent Advances) Due to the rapid growth of the WLANs, wireless network professionals are under constant pressure to develop new technologies that meet the demands of the consumers particularly in the enterprise environment. Now, this section highlights some of the new findings discovered in the field of WLAN, more so, the advances in the IEEE 802.11 standard. Advances in IEEE 802.11 standard 802.11ac: a recent advancement in the IEEE standard that was released in 2015 having extended capabilities as compared to its predecessor, the IEEE 802.11n standard. The 802.11ac standard combines the benefits of mobile connectivity with those of Gigabit Ethernet technology. This outcome is achieved using its three dimensions of operations that are; one, extra channels bonding where a 160 MHz band is used (300 percent increase from the previous range). Two, better modulation as supported by quadrature amplitude modulation and finally, more inputs and outputs (MIMO). 802.11ad (WiGig): a short range WLAN that is designed using a high-frequency model that is able to carry more information while having a better throughput. Now, this standard will use a 60 GHz RF spectrum, unlike the commonly used 2.4 GHz range. Therefore, in close quotas, the standard will facilitate higher transmission speeds of about 7Gbps [16]. 802.11ah (Wi-Fi HaLow): a WLAN standard that answers the question of having a Bluetooth equivalent of wireless networks. In essence, 802.11ah will offer the same functionalities as Bluetooth connections but with the extended features of WLAN. Furthermore, it will operate at low frequencies (below GHz) thus will serve longer distances at lower costs. Moreover, the same standard will require low power to operate which will facilitate its application in smart systems such as those of IoT (internet of things). 802.11ax: outlined as the next big thing, the 802.11ax standard promises to have better functionalities and feature as compared to the existing WLAN technologies. For one, the standard will have faster speeds (between 4 to 10 times faster) as compared to the existing standards. Moreover, it will extend the coverage distance an outcome that will be coupled with multiple communication channels increasing the overall network throughput [17]. Therefore, for a single channel, the speeds may get up to 4 Gbps a result that will see the entire standard have speeds of over 14 Gbps. Furthermore, the standard will have minimal congestions owing to the orthogonal multiplexing techniques that will be used. In addition to this, it will have a better battery life because it will operate within convenient frequencies based on the users requirements. Conclusion Wireless LAN form a critical component of wireless networking where local connections are supported using wireless infrastructure. Now, based on the analysis done by this report, their application extend in all the fields of life which signify their importance in information technology. Moreover, their extensive application makes them the most notable and used technology in the world as many users will use them to access resources through different devices. Furthermore, their functionalities form the basis of worldwide networks more so the internet which integrates many resources through a common network. WLAN is also exhibited as an efficient technology that throughout the years has evolved to fit the needs of the users. This evolution is even seen today where new advances as outlined in the previous section have been developed. WLAN can, therefore, be outlined as a true reflection of technology because its attributed as a factor of time where it changes continuously based on the needs of the users. Therefore, in the future, WLAN will continue to boost its operations based on its defining factors and components which again are encapsulated within its transmission medium of the radio frequency spectrum. References R. Budhrani and R. Sridaran, "Wireless Local Area Networks: Threats and Their Discovery Using WLANs Scanning Tools," International Journal of Advanced Networking Applications (IJANA) , p. Available: https://www.ijana.in/Special%20Issue/26.pdf, 2016. R. Bhatnagar and V. 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